Surfaces having non-fouling characteristics facilitate the development of advanced materials for use in biomedical and marine applications.
In medical applications, a major problem associated with implanted and blood contact biomaterials is the triggering of a number of undesired responses including inflammation, infection, thrombosis, fibrosis, allergy, and biomaterial induced cancer. These unwanted responses are triggered with the rapid accumulation of a large number of blood plasma proteins when the materials come in contact with blood (Wyszogrodzka and Haag, Biomacromolecules 2009 10:1043-1054; Castner and Ratner, Surf Sci. 2002 500:28-60; Ratner and Bryant, Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2004 6:41-75).
In marine environments, surfaces become fouled rapidly due to biofouling. Biofouling is the unwanted accumulation of microorganism, plants, algae and animals on artificial structures immersed in water, such as sea, river or lake water. Biofilm formation, which involves adhesion of bacteria and diatoms, is the first step in the process of biofouling. The specific or nonspecific recognition of adsorbed organic material by bacteria is the main driving force for their adhesion (Iguerb et al., Langmuir 2008 24:12272-12281; Geesey, Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2001 4:296-300). Bacteria use exopolymers and a protein matrix to cement themselves to a surface. Although adhesion of organisms to the surface is complicated, marine organisms attach to surfaces by a primary mechanism that involves wetting of the surface by secretion of a protein or glycoprotein adhesive (Iguerb et al., Langmuir 2008 24:12272-12281).
Materials can be modified with a surface coating to become protein resistant (Ostuni et al., Langmuir 2003 19:1861-1872; Hester et al., Macromolecules 2002 35:7652-7661; Griesser et al., Smart Mat. Struct. 2002 11:652). Materials containing PEG self-assembled monolayers (SAM) are commercially available and are prominent protein resistant materials (Wyszogrodzka and Haag, Biomacromolecules 2009 10:1043-1054; Szleifer, Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci. 1997 2:337-344). However, the SAM approach is not suitable for broad practical use. Improved protein-resistant coatings and surface modifications are of broad continuing interest in many technological, industrial and medical fields.